1.1.1 Kinetic Theory(..)#

1.1.2 States of Matter#

two points: melting point and boiling point

range of temp: Condensation, evaporating

sublimation: only a few solids(CO2,I2)

reversible arrow: ⇌

1.1.3 Pressure & Temperature in Gases#

Ideal Gas Law:

1.1.4 Diffusion#

==Diffusion==: Particles move down the concentration gradient (?)

温度越高，diffusion越快

random motion of particles

high concentration -> low concentration

the concentration is even as they spread out

relative molecular masses

NH3 + HCl -> NH4Cl

HCl > NH3

一些gas的论证：(vaporised 后）move randomly in the container, no forces between gaseous molecules(没有力支撑，液体就有支撑）, molecules can move apart（液体就不行）

2.1.1 Elements, Compounds & Mixtures#

Element: 元素

Compound: 化合物

Mixture: 混合物

可以继续分为homogeneous mixture（质地统一） / heterogeneous mixture（不统一）

2.1.2 Atomic Structure#

Subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, electrons

nucleus: 原子核

relative atomic mass: 相对原子质量

Atomic number(Z): protons

Nucleon Number / mass number (A): protons + neutrons

Atomic notation: A上Z下

2.1.3 Electronic Configuration#

表示原子结构两种方式：electron shell diagrams, electronic configuration (electronic structure)

离原子核越远，电子层能量越高

the outermost shell = the valence shell最外层

period: number of notations

group: last notation

最外层电子：valency electrons

2.1.4 Isotopes#

Isotopes: different atoms of the same element (that contain the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons)

表示法：C-14(mass number)

化学性质相似：相同的最外层电子

物理性质差异：不同的原子质量

2.2.1 Ions & Ionic Bonds#

Ion: An electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of electrons

负离子：anion

正离子：cation

ionic bond: strong electrostatic forces of attraction between opposite charges

dot-and-cross diagram: 元素外打括号，右上角写电荷。（只用画最外层电子）记得配平（前面写系数）

2.2.2 Ionic Bonds & Lattice Structure#

lattice structure: ordered, repeating, regular arrangement of alternating anions and cations.

2.2.3 Properties of Ionic Compounds#

solid at r.t.

high m.p. and b.p. (strong electrostatic forces)

good conductors of electricity in the molten state or in solution

poor conductors in the solid state

2.3.1 Covalent Bonds#

Covalent bond: pairs of electrons are shared between atoms(只有non-metal elements)

Molecules: two or more atoms are covalently bonded together

画dot-and-cross diagram: 两个圆相交部分画电子

single covalent bond(single bond)只share一对电子

2.3.2 Molecules & Compounds#

double bond / triple bound

2.3.3 Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds#

Simple molecular compound: just a few atoms covalently bonded together

low m.p. and b.p. (如果分子更大m.p.和b.p.也更大) (因为week intermolecular forces弱分子间作用力)

poor electrical conductivity(no free ions or electrons)(可作为insulator)

Diamond & Graphite(石墨)#

Allotropes(同素异形体): Different atomic or molecular arrangements of the same element in the same physical state

Diamond: 接四个 form a tetrahedron(四面体)

no intermolecular forces

Graphite: 接三个 form layers of hexagons

layer之间：weak intermolecular forces

unpaired electron becomes delocalised

Properties & Uses

Diamond:

don’t conduct electricity

high m.p.

extremely hard and dense

uses: jewellery, cutting tools

Graphite: can conduct electricity, slippery and smooth, high m.p.

pencil

industrial lubricant(润滑剂)

non-reactive electrods for electrolysis(conduct electricity, high m.p., inert(stable), cheap)

2.4.2 Silicon(IV) Oxide#

Quartz: 石英

结构：钻石的结构。碳变为硅，键上面放一个氧

性质：类似于钻石，更便宜

用途：sandpaper,

2.4.3 Metallic Bonding#

metallic lattice

electrons delocalised

sea of electrons

Properties:

high m.p. and b.p.

conduct electricity

malleable(可塑性)

Ductile(可延展性)

(layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different positions)

wire

3.1.1 Formulae#

diatomic molecules: 双原子分子

3.1.2 Empirical Formulae & Formulae of Ionic Compounds#

Empirical formula: 实验式

polyatomic: 多原子的

3.1.3 Writing Equations#

reactants: 反应物

products: 生成物

• Solid = (s)
• Liquid = (l)
• Gas = (g)
• Aqueous = (aq)

Precipitates: 沉淀

3.1.4 Ar & Mr#

Ar: relative atomic mass

Mr: relative molecular mass

(对于ionic compound是relative formula mass)

3.2.1 The Mole#

The mole: the SI unit of amount of substance

Avogadro Constant: 6.02e23

molar mass: 一摩尔的物质的质量(gram)在数值上等于相对质量

Avogadro’s Law: same temperature and pressure, 相同数量气体占的空气相等

常温常压1mol气体占24dm3 / 24000cm3空间(molar gas volume at RTP)

3.2.2 Linking Moles, Mass & Mr#

n = m / Mr

3.2.3 Reacting Masses#

limiting reactant: the reactant that is used up first

excess reactant: the one that is remaining

3.2.4 Calculating Concentration#

Solute(溶质): a solid substance that dissolves into a liquid

Solvent(溶剂): the liquid that a solute dissolves in

concentration: the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of the solvent(g/dm3 & mol/dm3)

3.2.5 Titration Calculations#

3.2.6 Empirical & Molecular Formula#

Hydrated salt: a crystallised salt that contains water molecules as part of its structure

3.2.7 Percentage Yield & Purity#

Yield: the term used to describe the amount of product you get from a reaction

percentage yield = actual yield / theoretical yield

percentage composition:

Percentage purity

4.1.1 Electrolysis Principles#

molten / aqueous

ionic compounds

electrode: a rod of metal(platinum) or graphite through which an electric current flows into or out of an electrolyte (conductor, inert)

electrolyte: the ionic compound in a molten or dissolved solution that conducts the electricity

-> Molten Salt

-> Conc / dilute solution

-> Copper electrodes

anode: the positive electrode of an electrolysis cell

anion: negatively charged ion

cathode: the negative electrode of an electrolysis cell

cation: positively charged ion

anode: non-metals (在没有conc的情況oh先氧化，否则halogen先)

cathode: hydrogen / metal

PANIC(Positive is Anode Negative Is Cathode)

AN OX / RED CAT (Anode Oxidation / Reduction Cathode)

Shiny: Nickel, chromium

4.1.2 Electrolysis of Molten Compounds#

binary ionic compound: consisting of just two elements joined together by ionic bonding

4.1.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Chloride & Dilute Sulfuric Acid#

brine: concentrated solution of aqueous sodium chloride

gas test for chlorine: if damp litmus paper is dipped into a sample of the gas, it will turn red and then bleach to a white colour

4.1.4 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions#

ammeter: 电流表

两个电极都是铜，液体是硫酸铜：硫酸铜浓度不变，电极质量变化

4.1.5 Ionic Half Equations#

Oxidation: loss of electrons

Reduction: gain of electrons

4OH- -> O2 + 2H2O + 4e-

OIL RIG(Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain)

RED CAT(Reduction at the Cathode)

AN OX(Anode for Oxidation)

4.2.1 Electroplating#

Electroplating: the surface of one metal is coated with a layer of a different metal

cathode: object to be electroplated

anode: made from the pure metal that will be plated onto the object

Reason: make metals more resistant to corrosion or damage

4.2.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells#

fuel: a substance which releases energy when burned

Advantages:

Renewable, no pollution, release more energy per kg, no power is lost in transmission, quieter

Disadvantages:

expensive, hydrogen is more difficult and expensive to store compared to petrol(flammable and easily explodes when under pressure), affected by low temp

5.1.1 Endothermic & Exothermic Reactions#

system: the reacting chemicals

surroundings: anything other than the reacting chemicals

和acid反应，carbonate可以是exo或者endo，metal只能exo

Exothermic Reaction: 放热

==Definition==: An exothermic reaction transfers thermal energy to the surroundings leading to an increase in the temperature of the surroundings.

e.g.: Neutralization, oxidation, combustion(燃烧反应), dissolving anhydrous salts, reaction between acids and metal carbonates, dissolving crystalline salts(？)

application: hand warmers, self-heating cans

\Delta H < 0

Endothermic Reaction: 吸热

==Definition==: An endothermic reaction takes in thermal energy from the surroundings leading to a decrease in the temperature of the surroundings.

e.g.: Atomization(变成原子？), Electrolysis, thermal decomposition, the first stage of photosynthesis(光合作用),

Application: cold packs

\Delta H > 0

Reaction pathway diagram(reaction profiles)

peak: transition state / activated complex

5.1.2 Enthalpy Change & Activation Energy#

原子或分子想要反应要撞在一起。影响因素有能量，方向，频率…

Definitions

Enthalpy(H)(kJ/mol): an indication of the total energy of a substance and it cannot be measured directly.

==Enthalpy change== of a reaction($\Delta H$): The transfer of thermal energy during a reaction.

$\Delta H$ is negative for exothermic reactions and positive for endothermic reactions.

*Energetic stability of a system

Exothermic reactions are more energetically favorable(likely to happen) than endothermic ones because a system with lower energy content is more stable.

Lower energy state -> more stable

Standard enthalpy changes

Standard enthalpy changes: $\Delta H °$

Standard condition(°-结合在一起): To make comparison of enthalpy changes a fair comparison, same conditions must be used.

Pressure: 101kPa

Temperature: 298K

Concentration of solutions: 1.0 mol / dm3

Normal physical state

Allotropes: 选更energetically stable的 (选石墨不选钻石)

Activation Energy

==Definition==: The minimum energy that colliding particles must have to react

EA(forward)：从reactants到顶峰的能量

EA(reverse)：从products到顶峰的能量

5.1.3 Bond Breaking & Bond Forming#

Bond Energy(Bond enthalpy): Energy required to break a mole of (covalent) bonds in the gaseous state. (always positive($\Delta H > 0$))

有些bond energy是确定的有些取平均（被其他原子的存在所一项

breaking bonds: needs energy (endothermic)

forming bonds: releases energy (exothermic)

Bond breaking:

the energy needed to break bonds

Energy change = Energy required to break bonds - Energy given out when bonds are made(左边减去右边)

6.1.1 Physical & Chemical Changes#

Physical changes: Changes in which new chemical substances are not produced

e.g. change in states, separation of mixtures …

Chemical changes: changes in which new chemical substances are produced

e.g. Decomposition, electrolysis, respiration, photosynthesis, polymerisation, combustion, etc.

6.1.2 Rates of Reaction Factors#

study of chemical reactions -> reaction kinetics

Rate of reaction

Rate = change in amount of reactants or product / time

Unit: mol dm^-3^ s^-1^ / mol dm^-3^ min^-1^ / mol dm^-3^ h^-1^

change in amount

-> volume of gas

-> concentration of reactants or products

Measuring rate of reaction

Acidity:

Volume:

Mass:

Appearance:

Electrical conductivity:

Calculation of the rate of reaction

gradient / tangent line

rate of reaction = d[reactant或者product] / dt

reactant的话要取负的gradient

6.1.3 Collision Theory#

Heterogeneous reactions: 不同phase之间的物质的reaction

Reaction:

-> particles must collide

-> in the correct orientation and with sufficient energy

Activation Energy: The minimum energy required for a reaction to occur (EA)

Ineffective Collision: takes place if the colliding particles do not have enough energy to react (low K.E.)

Effective(successful) Collision: takes place if the colliding particles do have enough energy to react (high K.E.)

sme上的定义(?): A successful collision is where the particles in the reactant(s) are rearranged to form the products

Speeding up a reaction -> increase rate -> increase effective collision -> (breakpoint) increase collision frequency -> Concentration / Pressure / Surface Area / Temperature

(breakpoint) increase # of particles with E > EA -> Temperature / Catalyst

Energy of molecules -> directly proportional to their absolute temperature

distribution of energies between different molecules: Boltzmann distribution (not all of the particles have the same amount of k.e. )

(一个横轴molecular energy 纵轴number of molecules的图。在竖线EA右边的部分可以参与反应)

-> The distribution always goes through the origin

-> The curve approaches the x-axis but does not touch it

-> The peak represents the most probable energy.

-> The area under the curve represents the total number of particles.

-> The shaded portion represents the number of particles with energy higher than or equal to the activation energy (E>=EA)

The Effect of Concentration and Pressure

frequency of collisions 正相关

不改变Boltzmann distribution of energies

The Effect of Surface Area

和Frequency of Collisions 正相关

不改变Boltzmann Distribution of Energies

The Effect of Temperature

-> 改变Temperature -> 改变particles的K.E. -> 改变速度快慢 -> 改变 Collision Frequency

-> 增加或减少有E大于等于EA的particles

-> 总结：改变frequency of effective collisions

温度增加：most probable energy更高，但更少的粒子达到了这个要求

反之亦然

Rate翻倍只要Temp加十就好了（有点像dB+3

temp可以影响reactants的初始enthalpy(在endo exo那个图里面上移下移)

The Effect of Catalyst

Catalyst: increases(?) the rate of reaction by providing an alternative reaction path way with lower EA

How: more particles have E>=EA, so increase in frequency of effective collisions

催化剂的化学性质反应前后不改变

在Boltzmann图面就是EA往左移，在endo exo的图里就是peak向下移

6.1.4 Explaining Rates Using Collision Theory#

6.1.5 Investigating The Rate of a Reaction#

6.1.6 Interpreting Data#

6.2.1 Reversible Reactions#

6.2.2 Equilibrium#

6.2.3 The Haber Process#

6.2.4 The Contact Process#

6.3.1 Oxidation & Reduction#

Roman numeral: 用来indicate the oxidation number of an element in a compound

定义表

Redox reactions: involving simultaneous oxidation and reduction / involving gain and loss of electrons

==Oxidation==: gain of oxygen / loss of electrons / an increase in oxidation number

==Reduction==: loss of oxygen / gain of electrons / a decrease in oxidation number

identify redox reactions by changes in oxidation number …

Oxidation number: a number assigned to an atom or ion in a compound, showing the number of electrons that an atom

6.3.2 Redox & Electron Transfer#

==Oxidising agent==: A substance that oxidises another substance and is itself reduced

Very powerful: Acidified Potassium Manganate(VII): KMnO4

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- -> Mn2+ + 4H2O

pink -> colourless(?)

==Reducing agent==: A substance that reduces another substance and is itself oxidised

Very powerful: Potassium Iodide:

2I- -> I2 + 2e-

colourless -> brown(?)

加starch变深蓝

7.1.1 Properties of Acids & Bases#

Acids

pH<7

sour taste

corrosive

Reactivity series: K,Na,Ca,Mg,Al,(C),Zn,Fe,Sn(Tin),Pb,(H),Cu,Ag,Au,Pt

Acid + Metal -> Salt + Hydrogen(置换)

acid + base -> salt + H2O(neutralisation)

acid + metal carbonate -> salt + CO2 + H2O

indicators(酸碱指示剂)

Synthetic indicators: titration(sharp change of colour)

Bases & Alkalis

==base==: Proton acceptor(?)

==alkali==: soluble base

pH>7

Bases are usually oxides or hydroxides of metals

Ammonium salt + alkali -> salt + H2O + NH3

(用于检测ammonium ion，followed by 氨气的检测(damp潮湿的 red litmus paper turns blue))

7.1.2 The Ions in Acids & Alkalis#

pH scale: how acidic or alkaline a solution is

acidity, neutrality, alkalinity

logarithmic对数的

pH(n) -> 氢离子浓度为10^(-n) mol/L

universal indicator: 不同指示剂的混合物。

7.1.3 Proton Transfer, Strong & Weak Acids#

H+: proton(氕)

Acids: proton donors

Bases: proton acceptors

strong & weak acids: completely / partially dissociate(ionise)

7.1.4 Classifying Oxides#

acidic oxide / basic oxide

酸性氧化物和碱反应。反之亦然

neutral oxide(CO,NO,N2O)

Amphoteric oxide(ZnO, Al2O3)

7.2.1 Preparing Soluble Salts#

sulphate硫酸盐，chloride氯化物

filtrate: 过滤后的液体

Insoluble base: Dissolving

use spatula to add excess CuCO3 into a beaker of HCL until no further bubbling or no further dissolving

filter off the excess solid(取filtrate)

heat the salt solution to evaporate water

cool the saturated solution to form crystal

wash the crystal with distilled water

dry the crystal with filter paper

Soluble base: Titration

记得看syllabus!!

-> Add alkali + indicator to conical flask using a pipette

-> Add acid to burette, noting the starting volume

-> add acid to alkali slowly until indicator changes colour

-> calculate

Use volumetric pipette to transfer 25cm3 of HCl(aq) into a conical flask

Add a few drops of methyl orange indicator

fill a burette with NaOH(aq)

add NaOH(aq) from the burette to the conical flask until the end point - Orange

repeat the process without indicator, but using the same volume of acid and alkali as used in the titration

heat the salt solution to evaporate water

cool the saturated solution to form crystal

wash the crystal with distilled water

dry the crystal with filter paper

7.2.2 Preparing Insoluble Salts#

precipitation reaction

the reactants must be soluble

mix AgNO3(aq) and NaCl(aq) solution in a beaker

filter the solution to collect the insoluble salt

wash the crystal with distilled water

dry the crystal with filter paper

7.2.3 Solubility Rules#

Soluble: K, Na, NH4

Soluble: NO3(硝酸)(Nitrate)

Cl(默认可溶): Ag,Pb ,Hg

SO4(默认可溶): Ba, Ca, Pb , Ra, Sr

CO3(默认不可溶): 除了钾钠氨

OH(默认不可溶): 除了钾钠氨，Ca(partially), Ba

默认不可溶: OH(CaOH partially soluble,Ba(OH)2), CO3

heat transfer: particle to particle transfer

描述粒子运动：先random

7.2.4 Hydrated & Anhydrous Salts#

Hydrated salts: salts that contain water within their structure

Anhydrous sats: contain no water in their structure

dehydrated: 脱水

Water of crystallisation: water molecules included in the structure of some salts during the crystallisation process

Color change:

第一主族和第二主族没什么颜色。要记得color change两个：copper sulfate 蓝色到白色；cobalt(II) chloride 粉色到蓝色

8.1.1 The Periodic Table#

order: Increasing atomic number

group: 族

period: 周期(electron shells)

group 0第八组

Valency

Valency(combining power): how many bonds an atom can make with another atom or how many electrons its atoms lose, gain or share, to form a compound(化合价)

8.1.2 Periodic Trends#

The metallic character左下最强，右上最弱

metalloids / semi-metals(准金属): shows some of the properties of metals and some of non-metals

transition elements are denser than group I elements

8.2.1 Group I Properties#

(alkali metals)

soft and easy to cut

shiny silvery surfaces

conduct heat and electricity

low m.p. and low density (越往下m.p.越低)

8.2.2 Group VII Properties#

(halogens)

poisonous

diatomic

halide ions

Cl2(Chlorine): pale yellow-green gas

Br2(Bromine): red-brown liquid

I2(iodine): grey-black solid

the outer electrons are closer to the nucleus so there are stronger electrostatic forces of attraction

越往下颜色越深

8.2.3 Group VII Displacement Reactions#

halogen displacement reaction

I2 vapour: purple

I2 aqueous: brown

8.2.4 Transition Elements#

hard and strong

good conductors of heat and electricity

high m.p. highly dense

form coloured compounds and often have more than one oxidation state(pigments颜料)

catalysts催化剂

limb and joint replacement

dyes and paints, stained glass jewellery

8.2.5 Noble Gases#

Group 0

low m.p. and b.p.

monoatomic, colourless gasses

full outer shells

extremely stable (unreactive and inert)

9.1.1 Properties of Metals#

半金属：semimetals, metalloids

metal bond的强度可以由沸点得出（气体时原子都分开）

Properties of metals

1. conduct heat and electricity(sea of delocalized electrons)
2. malleable(can be hammered and made into different shapes压扁成一片) and ductile(can be drawn into wires(延展性))
3. lustrous & shiny
4. high density, high m.p. (metallic bond -determined by-> number of delocalized electrons)
5. form positive ions, basic oxides
6. solid(except mercury)

Properties of non-metal

1. Do not conduct heat and electricity(insulator)
2. brittle(脆) when solid
3. dull and nonreflective
4. low density and low m.p. (low的都是simple molecules. Giant covalent molecules还是很强的(diamond3200, graphite3400, silicon dioxide~2000))(看到3000优先想钻石石墨)
5. form negative ions, acidic oxides
6. solid, liquid(Br2…), gas

金属+冷水 -> 金属氢氧化物 + 氢气

金属+蒸汽 -> 金属氧化物 + 氢气

和酸：置换反应

和氧气：氧化物

9.1.2 Uses of Metals(Al, Cu)#

Uses of Al:

(most abundance)(form a layer of aluminium oxide, which acts as a protective layer)

Uses of Cu:

9.1.3 Alloys(合金)#

Alloys: mixture of metal with other elements

Cr可以让成品更shiny, 好看

Alloys通常harder, stronger, more useful, resistant to corrosion / extreme temperatures

Structure

Metal: regular arrangement of ions

Alloys: irregular arrangement of atoms

The metal lattice structure is distorted(扭曲) in alloys

Reason 4 the Properties

atoms of different sizes -> distorts the normally regular arrangements of atoms in metals -> more difficult for the layers to slide over each other -> harder / stronger

9.2.1 Reactivity Series#

方法：displacement reactions(substitution)

K,Na,Ca,Mg,Al,(C),Zn,Fe,(H),Cu,Hg,Ag,Pt,Au

钾钠钙(钙钠)镁铝

(碳)锌铁(氢)

铜汞银铂金

四种金属反应

Metal + Acid -> Salt + Hydrogen：氢之前

Metal+ Water-> Hydroxide + Hydrogen：钾钠钙

Metal + Steam -> Oxide + Hydrogen：氢之前

Metal + Oxygen -> Oxide：氢之前+铜

CuO：黑的

9.2.2 Explaining Reactivity#

Al: a protective layer of aluminium oxide which is very thin (prevents reaction with water and dilute acids)

9.2.3 Rusting of Iron#

Rusting: Iron专属 Corrosion: 所有metal都有

iron + water + oxygen -> hydrated iron(III) oxide(氧化铁)

防止生锈：barrier methods, painting, plastic coating(还有后面的两个)

grease: oil

paint: plastic

iron & steel: rust

other metal: corroded

9.2.4 Galvanising & Sacrificial(牺牲) Protection#

Sacrificial protection: a more reactive metal can be attached to a less reactive metal

zinc is sacrificed to protect the steel

electrons travel from the zinc to th

galvanising(镀锌): a process where the iron to be protected is coated with a layer of zinc

9.3.1 Extraction of Metals#

Metal ore: a rock that contains enough of the metal to make it worthwhile extracting

Methods:

1. Electrolysis aqueous solutions containing their ions
2. using blast furnace / react with more reactive material
3. 碳之下：和碳或一氧化碳还原
4. 碳之上：电解熔融氧化物/氯化物 (贵)

Reduction: 很多矿石是氧化物。移除氧是还原反应

Native metals: gold, platinum(chemical stability, 不用提取)

9.3.2 Extraction of Iron from Hematite(赤铁矿)#

Ores: Hematite(Fe2O3), Magnetite(Fe3O4), Fayalite (Fe2SiO4)

blast furnace

coke(C), hematite(Fe2O3, SiO2), limestone(CaCO3)

1. burning of carbon to provide heat and produce CO2(Waste) C+O2 -> CO2 (exothermic)
2. Reaction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide C+CO2 -> 2CO (Good reducing agent)
3. Reduction of iron(III) oxide by carbon monoxide Fe2O3 + 3CO -> Fe(l) + 3CO2
4. Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate / limestone to produce calcium oxide CaCO3 -> CaO(s)+CO2
5. Formation of slag(不要的那些impurities) CaO + SiO2(s) -> CaSiO3(l)

Slag比Iron轻

写方程式记得铁和slag是liquid, CaO是solid

9.3.3 Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite(!)#

Al2O3

Electrolysis

(~2000°C)Molten aluminium oxide (impure) / bauxite + cryolite

2000°C加了cryolite降到1000°C

Cryolite可以1. 增加导电性 2. 降低操作时的温度

电极用石墨

Cathode: Al3+ + 3e- -> Al(在cell底部(siphoned(虹吸) off from time to time))

Anode: 2O2- -> O2 + 4e- (need to be regularly replaced (reacts with oxygen))

贵->用很多电

10.1.1 Water: Chemical Tests#

10.1.2 Substances in Water from Natural Sources#

10.1.3 Water Treatment#

10.1.4 Fertilisers#

10.2.1 Air#

10.2.2 Effects of Greenhouse Gases#

10.2.3 Reducing the Effects of Environmental Issues#

10.2.4 Photosynthesis#

11.1.1 Organic Formulae#

Organic compounds: those which contain carbon (不包括metal carbonates, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide)

Hydrocarbon: a compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon atoms

表示方法：empirical formula, displayed formulae, general formulae, structural formulae

Empirical Formula(C2H5): simplest ratio of atoms

Molecular Formula(C4H10): Actual number of atoms of each element in a compound

Displayed Formulae(a diagram): shows the spatial arrangement of all the atoms and bonds in a molecule

**Structural Formulae(CH3CH2CH2CH3): **shows the order and arrangement of atoms

1. only show important bonds(double and triple bonds)
2. identical groups / side groups: 打括号

*Skeletal Formula: All C, H and C-H bonds are removed

structure isomers: same molecular formulae, different structural formulae (structural isomerism)

如果是CnH2n考虑两种情况，double bond 或者 ring !!!!!

carbon: can form 4 bonds

11.1.2 Homologous Series#

Functional Group: an atom or group of atoms which are bonded in a specific arrangement that is responsible for the characteristic reactions of each member of a homologous series.

-> dictates their physical and chemical properties

Homologous Series: a family of organic compounds that have similar features and chemical properties due to them have the same functional group

-> same functional group

-> same general formula

-> similar chemical properties

-> gradual change in physical properties

-> differing form one member to the next by a -CH2- unit

General Formula: A type of empirical formula that represents the composition of any member of a whole homologous series of organic compound

General Characteristic of Homologous Series:

-> The same general formulae

-> same functional group

-> similar chemical properties

-> Gradation in their physical properties

-> The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the next is CH2

Meth, Eth, Prop, But (Monkeys Eat Peeled Bananas)

11.1.3 Saturated & Unsaturated Compounds#

Saturated compounds: have molecules in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds (e.g. alkanes)

Unsaturated compounds: consist of molecules in which one or more carbon-carbon bonds are not single bonds (e.g. alkenes, carboxylic acid)

11.1.4 Naming Organic Compounds(!)#

Substituents: 替换掉有机物里的氢的东西（比如CH4去掉一个H加一个F）

IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

IUPAC naming system: Prefix - Parent - Suffix

-> Prefix: Name and position of substituents

-> Parent: Length of the longest carbon chain

-> Suffix: Main functional group

两个部分：the stem, end part (prefix, suffix)

The stem: indicates the number of carbon atoms present in the longest continuous chain of the compound

Substituent

例子： 2-methylbutane 2,3-dimethylbutane

The end part: tells you what functional group is in the compound

butanoic acid

propene

pentanol

高级命名法

需要指定functional group出现在哪一个carbon atom 上面（数字越小越好）

-an: 单键 -en: 双键

在propene之后，要指定双键出现在哪里（e.g. but-1-ene, but-2-ene)

-OH: alcohol / hydroxyl group

和ene一样，在ethanol之后要指定在哪（e.g. propan-1-ol, propan-2-ol)

carboxylic acid很伟大，不用指定。默认出现在1号位

Ester: 基于原先的alcohol和carboxylic acid，比较复杂，和structure的画法相反

原子越多燃烧放出的re’liang

11.2.1 Fossil Fuels#

Fossil fuels: release a large amount of energy when burned

三大类：Coal / Natural Gas(主要是CH4) / Petroleum (mixture of hydrocarbons)

petroleum的分离方式：fractional distillation

气体从塔下面被heater加热后，顺着塔向上走

塔从下往上的趋势：

-> lower boiling point

-> decreasing chain length

-> higher volatility (挥发性)

-> lower viscosity (流动性)

11.2.2 Alkanes(烷烃)#

saturated hydrocarbons

CnH2n+2

cycloalkanes会少两个H

物理性质：

b.p.和m.p.：

-> 分子越大bpmp越大

-> chain越straight(没什么branches)bpmp越大

Solubility:

-> Insoluble

化学性质：

Unreactive

-> C and H have similar electronegativities

-> strong and non-polar C-C and C-H bonds

想要react的话也有

-> Combustion（燃烧）: Carbon dioxide / monoxide

Reagents 1: Excess O2 (Complete combustion)（reagent：和reactant差不多，是加入到原本物质的一方）

Reagents 2: Limited O2 (Incomplete combustion) (就是氧气没那么足)

Conditions: Room temperature

Equation 1: CxHy + O2 ---> x CO2 + y H2O (O2要配平) (Complete, 燃烧产生CO2)

Equation 2: CxHy + O2 ---> x ==CO== + y H2O (O2要配平) (Incomplete, 燃烧产生CO)

-> Substitution（比如一个H变成Cl） : Halogenoalkanes

reactions in which one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms

具体来说，这里的substitution是==halogenation== (把一个东西换成halogen)

Reagents: Halogens(Cl2 , Br2 …)

Conditions: ==Ultraviolet light==

Equation: CH4 + Cl2 —(UV light)—> CH3Cl + HCl (把一个H换成Cl) (CH3Cl: ==Chloromethane==)

(有UV light参与所以也是photochemical reaction)

-> Cracking （断键） : Alkenes + Alkanes or Hydrogen

High temp. & press. (or catalyst + heat)

11.2.3 Alkenes(!!)#

11.2.4 Addition Reactions(!!)#

11.2.5 Alcohols#

Alcohol: One or more H atoms in an alkane have been replaced by OH groups

General formula: CnH2n+1OH

Physical properties:

-> soluble in water

-> High boiling point (78 for ethanol)

Usage:

-> solvent

-> Fuel

Reactions:

->

Alkenes —(Catalytic Addition of H2O(g))—> Alcohols

Glucose —(Fermentation)—> Alcohols

Alcohols —> Combustion (CO2/CO) / Oxidation(Carboxylic acids) / Esterification(Esters)

Forming

-> Hydration

CH2=CH2 + H2O(steam, g) —(H3PO4 ， 300C, 60atm) —> CH3CH2OH

High Purity, High yield, Non-renewable, Continuous flow process, one product formed

High energy cost

-> Fermentation

C6H12O6(Glucose) —(Yeast, 25C35C) —> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2~

High alcohol kills the yeast! (12% ~ 17%) , Renewable, low energy cost

batch process (fixed amount) , Occupied space

Beers / Wines

Reacting

-> Combustion

C2H5OH + 3O2(Excess) —> 2CO2 + 3H2O

C2H5OH + 2O2(Limited) —> 2CO + 3H2O

-> Oxidation

Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) - K2Cr2O7

Orange to Green (Cr2O7^2-^ -> Cr^3+^)

Acidified potassium manganate(VII) - KMnO4

Purple to Colourless (MnO4^-^ -> Mn^2+^)

Conditions: Heat under reflux

Equation: CH3CH2CH2(OH) + 2[O] —(reflux / H^+^) —> CH3CH2COOH + H2O

-> Bacterial Oxidation

Reagents: O2

Equation: CH3CH2CH2(OH) + O2 —(Enzymes in bacteria) —> CH3CH2COOH + H2O

(production of vinegar)

Reflux Heating

A solution may be heated to a boiling point without losing the solvent to evaporation

Increasing the number of vaporization - condensation cycles that the vapor undergoes

-> Esterification

conditions: concentrated H2SO4 or H3PO4

CH3CH2OH + CH3CO2H —(H^+^, reflux) —> CH3CO2CH2CH3 + H2O

11.2.6 Carboxylic Acids#

Physical properties:

-> b.p.随分子大小的增加而增加

-> b.p. 比对应大小的alkene更高

-> soluble in water

-> high b.p.

Reaction:

redox with metals -> Carboxylates

neutralization with alkalis -> Carboxylates

acid-base with carbonates -> Carboxylates

Esterification -> Esters

-> Redox with metals

2CH3CO2H + 2Na —> 2CH3CO2Na + H2

sodium ethanoate: CH3CO2Na

-> Neutralization with Alkalis

CH3CO2H + NaOH —> CH3CO2Na + H2O

-> Acid-base with Carbonates

2CH3CO2H + Na2CO3 —> CH3CO2Na + CO2 + 2H2O

-> Esterification

CH3CO2H + CH3CH2OH —(H^+^, Reflux) —> CH3CO2CH2CH3 + H2O

CH3CO2CH2CH3: ethyl ethanoate

和上面的一样

11.2.7 Ethanoic Acid & Esterification Reactions#

11.3.1 Polymers#

11.3.2 Addition & Condensation Polymers#

11.3.3 Plastics & their Disposal#

11.3.4 Proteins#

12.1.1 Apparatus for Measurements#

time: stopwatch

temp: thermometer / digital probe

mass: digital balance(needs to be tared(set to zero))

volume-liquids

(measuring cylinders)

graduated: 带有刻度的

volume-gases

Advantage & Disadvantage

12.1.2 Solutions#

residue [ˈrezɪdjuː]

12.1.3 Acid-Base Titrations#

细节懒得写了

Common acid-base indicators

12.2.1 Paper Chromatography(色谱法)#

used to separate substances that have different solubilities in a given solvent

capillary action: 毛细效应

12.2.2 Locating Agents & Rf Values#

locating agents: react with the sample and produce a coloured product which is then visible

Rf Value(Retention Factor): distance travelled by substance / distance travelled by solvent

12.2.3 Separation & Purification Techniques#

Filtration

used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the solid and a liquid / solution

Crystallisation

used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid is more soluble in hot solvent than in cold

saturated solution: 饱和溶液

(dipping a clean, dry, cold glass rod into the solution)

(还要用distilled water to remove any impurities and then allowed to dry)

Simple Distillation

used to separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution

冷凝管：condenser

Fractional Distillation

fractionating column

thermometer: 温度计

Assessing purity

Pure substances: melt and boil at specific and sharp temp

Mixtures: a range of melting and boiling points

如果样本不纯：b.p.更高m.p.更低

12.3.1 Identification of Anions#

12.3.2 Identification of Cations#

（Al,Zn)Excess->amphoteric(两性的)可以和碱反应

Clear: 像水一样可以看穿

Colourless: 没有颜色

flame test: blue Bunsen flame

12.3.3 Identification of Gases#

神秘化学知识

离子：

区分Cl, Br, I的方法

Reference

savemyexams

Other internet resources …